“Advertising operates predominantly by changing consumer tastes”
How effective is aspirational advertising such as ‘Paco Rabanne: 1 Million’ and perfume advertising in general, in influencing male consumer lifestyles, and why is this the case?
The representations and ideologies of aspirational adverts allow consumers to identify with the characters, as well as aspiring to be more like them. The "extreme protagonists" show that advertising has "extraordinary powers" . This reinforces the idea that advertising is powerful and effective enough to construct aspirations as being more than they can be in reality. When audiences see aspirational adverts, they “associate it with a whole desirable style of life, and to feel that not owning the product would involve personal failure” . Loren Colemen suggests in the copycat theory that viewers model themselves on the representations that they see in the hope that they will gain the idealistic lifestyles that are created. Through recurring stereotypical representations of the young, white male, as well as hegemonic values, the institutions behind perfume adverts represent their perfect customer so they can shape the audience’s lifestyles parallel to the lifestyles of the protagonist. As the hypodermic needle theory implies, audiences are affected by what they see in the media. However, a more pluralistic view might suggest that audiences are intelligent and would not passively believe that imitating these representations is what they need in order to get the perfect lifestyle, so aspirational adverts may not be as influential as they may seem.
The Media in modern society has established a widely accepted stereotype for males and masculinity. The dominant representation of males that is typically seen in advertising shows them as being; young, attractive and successful. In Paco Rabanne’s, 1 Million, the male protagonist possesses these dominant characteristics, and using film language, the advert reinforces these ideas. The majority is filmed in black and white, which immediately connotes that the central protagonist is classy and sophisticated. Furthermore, Paco Rabanne is a well known designer, and the advert has to match the same level of sophistication to meet the expectations of this brand. Within the first few seconds of the advert, this stereotype is clearly established. A combination of close ups and medium shots show the audience the attractiveness of the character and allow the female gaze, and this gives him an increased sense of masculinity as “one of the ways of determining whether a male character in an advertisement has the required authority [...] is through visual appearance” . There are many close up shots of his face to emphasise his good looks, as well as low key lighting to highlight his model-like bone structure. This makes him desirable, which is shown by the medium shot of the woman’s arms grabbing him. The woman’s face is deliberately hidden from the camera, which creates an anonymous character. This could suggest that any woman would want him. The ideology of the importance of wealth is evident throughout the advert. A lot of the advert is filmed in a casino, which signifies money, and possibly power. A bag full of money is dropped on the floor, implying that money comes easily to the protagonist, showing that gender stereotypes do not only exist “in terms of physique, but also in the suggestion of his affluence and business success.” Therefore, this shows that institutions such as Paco Rabanne reinforce the stereotypical view that men have to conform to the set gender roles of a man.
Marxist theory suggests that the dominant class groups in the hierarchy of society have power and influence over the subordinate groups. In aspirational adverts, the elite are “often focused upon, reinforcing their perceived importance” , which creates the ideology that they have idealistic lives that people would aspire to, hence reinforcing the Marxist idea of institutions representing the elite in leading roles, showing them as superior, which creates a social divide. In Dolce & Gabbana, The One, the main character has been placed in a dominant group of society. He owns an expensive car, and the long duration of the shot emphasises the value of it. Throughout the advert, he is being followed by paparazzi, implying his importance and that people would want to know about him. Furthermore, he does not seem to take any notice of their cameras, which suggests that it is part of his everyday life. Through the mise-en-scene, his wealth is reinforced by the glamorous setting of a classy hotel, just one of the many aspects that help suggest this. This dominant theme could imply it is only affordable to the higher socio-economic groups of A and B. All of the people in the advert are males, as this is the dominant gender in our patriarchal society, as “it is though patriarchy that power is attributed to males and withheld from females” . The sophisticated music of the advert also helps to create this hegemonic character. As the protagonist seems satisfied by his status, the advert helps to enforce the ideology that happiness comes from the success that he has gained. This could make audiences strive to become like this protagonist and influence them to fulfil their aspirations.
Over the years, males have become more androgynous, where they take on characteristics of the opposite gender roles and expectations. In many perfume adverts, the males take more care in their appearance, “passively inviting our gaze” . This is apparent in Jean Paul Gaultier’s Le Male, where all of the characters are men who are taking on what has historically been considered feminine roles, by showing a concern for their appearance “because they love being looked at and because so many men and women love to look at them” . The non-diegetic music that is used is sung by a woman, which adds femininity to the advert. The men in the advert are using the perfume in order to make themselves smell nice through the scent, which shows their metrosexual characteristics. The passing of the perfume to each other emphasises how men are becoming androgynous as it has become a part of their routine. At the end of the advert, all of the men are wearing suits, which represents them as being smart and presentable. A long shot invites the audience to look at their pose, which “contradicts the basic premise of traditional heterosexuality – that only women are looked at and only men do the looking” . The female gaze has become accepted since the 1990’s, when the Diet Coke Break advert first allowed females to voyeur. Since this advert, where women watched a topless man out of the window, it is now expected that men in adverts will look desirable, inviting the female gaze.
However, when this advert is compared to an older Jean Paul Gaultier perfume advert, Fleur Du Male, the historical advert shows that although androgyny did exist, it needed to be balanced with masculinity. Fleur Du Male consists of bright lighting as well as flowers which makes the advert more feminine. This feminine undertone of the advert is mirrored by the text; ‘freshness’, ‘poetry’ and ‘smile’ as they are feminine characteristics which would have been unexpected in an advert for males by an audience of that time. However, towards the end of the advert, a sense of masculinity is regained by the text, ‘in 100% masculine style’, to uphold the heightened status of masculinity in that patriarchal society as people at that time would have had “differing conceptions of what is most desirable as masculine (or feminine) traits” .
George Gerbner suggested that when audiences consume a media text, they are passively influenced by it and they may even be oblivious to the changes that it creates in them. The cultivation theory can be applied to aspirational adverts as they are viewed on a day to day basis and “many of these images are idealised, representing life more as it is imagined than as it actually exists” . Aspirational perfume adverts commonly use celebrities as actors, and this emphasises the idealistic lifestyle that the institutions want to create in the hope that audiences believe that their brand will mirror this lifestyle. The common iconographies of these perfume adverts consist of well dressed actors, all of the attention being with the protagonists and a black and white filming style. Often, the protagonists are the main focus of the advert, so the advert is not just about the product, but it is primarily about what consumers can gain from the product. In addition, the black and white filming and the well dressed actors give the advert class and elegance to make it more chic, once again in line with conventions of this media form. This suggests that “advertising operates predominantly by changing consumer tastes” because when audiences view characters pursuing their needs and wants, they aspire to be like the characters in the advert, mimicking and copying them. The copycat theory believes consumers impersonate the roles that they see and aspire to fulfil them. Hypothetically, when idealistic lives are portrayed in aspirational adverts, society may change and “become accustomed to that cultures values, and beliefs in their advertising” , thus making them unaware that their lifestyles are being constructed in this way by media institutions.
Both the cultivation and copycat theory suggest that audiences can be easily influenced, aspiring to the lifestyles they see in aspirational adverts. However, these adverts have had a negative impact on audiences. This has led to the censorship of many perfume adverts by Ofcom. It has become expected that perfume adverts have sexual content but “ads that are indecent, sexist, sexy [...] present a constant and ever growing problem” . The purpose of this sexual content should be to give audiences sexual gratifications. However, some adverts can be harmful to audiences as it is considered that there is over exposure to the amount of sexual images that we consume, desensitising audiences. Jean Paul Gaultier’s Le Male cologne for men shows this through the recurring phallic symbol of the perfume bottle, and the sexualised way that the women are touching it. Also, there are a lot of close up shots of the body parts of the actors, fetishising and objectifying them as they are no longer seen as people. This advert is sensationalising sex and raising political issues because the sensationalism of sex is a part of zeitgeist and moral panic in our society today.
Although it is widely believed that aspirational adverts influence audiences, a pluralistic view would oppose this idea. Marxist theory implies that aspirational adverts “brainwashes its audience with base, deceptive promises and appeals, designed to promote materialism” , but this requires passive audiences. Pluralists would disagree that audiences are so passive that they would be affected by adverts without even realising, but believe that audiences are more intelligent than what producers may think. Audiences today are seen as being more active, therefore being aware of the mediation involved in adverts, and although pluralists “agree that many ads create wants without producing information, we do not agree that they change our tastes” . The repeated ideologies that perfume adverts present may not affect audiences to the point where it would influence their tastes and lifestyles.
It is clear that advertisers aim to influence consumers and their lifestyles, and I would agree that they are successful in doing so. They create such an idealistic lifestyle that audiences cannot help but aspire to become like the characters that are portrayed. Aspirational perfume adverts focus more on the benefits to consumers’ lives than their products, and “most economists and intellectuals have not liked advertisements that provide little information” . Rather than give the audience information on the perfume, these adverts influence the male audience’s behaviour as it shows them a way of life that they will strive to achieve. The institutions behind these adverts are aware that modelling the audience into their perfect consumer will allow them to appeal to a mass audience, so “the technological forces are then harnessed, or exploited, by economic forces, the companies in the business of making profits” . Although it is understandable that some people may think that audiences are intelligent enough to not be influenced, it is clear that aspirational adverts do have an effect on male consumer lifestyles.
Word Count – 2139
Bibliography
Works Cited
Books
Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg (2000). Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer. Journal of Advertising Research, 40, pp 39-48
Branston, G.,& Stafford, R. (1999). The Media Student's Book (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp.379
Coad, D. (2008). The Metrosexual: Gender, Sexuality, and Sport. Albany: SUNY Press.
Jean J. Boddewyn. (1991) “Controlling Sex and Decency in Advertising around the World” M.E Sharpe, Inc.
MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing Men Maleness and Masculinity in the Media. London: Arnold.
Yong. Z and Betsy D. Gelb. (1996) “Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: The Influence of Products' Use Conditions” Autumn: M.E Sharpe, Inc. pp. 29-46
Magazines
Lucy Scott-Galloway. ( 2008).The theory behind the practices of news production. Newham: Media Magazine. What is News.
Martin S-Rethel. (2003). An alternative model for analysing a particular moment of media production. Media Magazine
Articles
Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy. (1993) A Simple Theory of Advertising as a Good or Bad. London: Oxford University Press.
Phillip, N. (1975). The Economic Consequences of Advertising. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Internet
http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/metrosexual_beckham.html
'Meet the Metrosexual'- Mark Simpson
http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/mirror_men.html
Here come the mirror men' by Mark Simpson - first usage of the word 'metrosexual - Mark Simpson
http://abs.sagepub.com/content/38/4/593.short
Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent - American Behavioural Scientist
Moving Image Texts
Paco Rabanne, 1 Million (2009), Paul Gore
Dolce & Gabbana, The One (2008), Miles Davis
Jean Paul Gultier, Le Male (1995), Francis Kurkdjian
Jean Paul Gultier, Le Male cologne for men ( 2007)
Jean Paul Gultier, Fleur Du Male (1992)
Works Consulted
http://www.istor.org/pss/2352485
Economics Consequences of Advertising - Phillip Nelson
http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Jpm4xlbNw7kC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=how+advertising+influ
ences+male+tastes&ots=J4iQbnOCPo&sig=pKPrcxyVfiuWuSLsmMvmvlPK8aUw#v=onepage&q&f=false
How Adverting affects Self Image- By Vickie Rutledge Shields, Dawn Heinecken
http://www.istor.orgypss/4189010
Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: the Influence of Products' Use Conditions - Yong Zhang and betsy D. Gelb
http://iournals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract ?fromPage=online&aid=162717
Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer - Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg
http://abs.sagepub.eom/content/38/4/593.short
Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent -Marsha L. Richins
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2118455
Simple theory of advertising as good or bad - Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy
http://www.englishandmedia.co.uk/mm/subscribers/downloads/archive mm/ mmagpast/mm22 what is news.html
What is news - Lucy Scott
Books
Coad, D. (2008). The Setrosexual: Sender, Sexuality, and Sport. Albany: SUNY Press
Gauntlett, D. (2008). Media, Gender and Identity: an Introduction. (2. ed.). New York, NY: Rout/edge.
Knoop, B. v. (2006). Metrosexuality: Development and Validation of the Metrosexual Scale.
Rotterdam: ErasmusUniversiteit.
MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing Men Maleness and Masculinity in the Media. London: Arnold.
Thursday, May 12, 2011
Sunday, March 13, 2011
Second Draft - Critical Investigation
“Advertising operates predominantly by changing consumer tastes”
How effective is aspirational advertising such as ‘Paco Rabanne: 1 Million’ and perfume advertising in general, in influencing male consumer lifestyles, and why is this the case?
The representations and ideologies of aspirational adverts allow consumers to identify with the characters, as well as aspiring to be more like them. The "extreme protagonists" show that advertising has "extraordinary powers" . This reinforces the idea that advertising is powerful and effective enough to construct aspirations as being more than they can be in reality. When audiences see aspirational adverts, they “associate it with a whole desirable style of life, and to feel that not owning the product would involve personal failure” . As Loren Colemen suggests in the copycat theory, that viewers model themselves on the representations that they see in the hope that they will gain the idealistic lifestyles that are created. Through recurring stereotypical representations of the young, white male, as well as hegemonic values, the institutions behind perfume adverts represent their perfect customer so they can shape the audience’s lifestyles parallel to the lifestyles of the protagonist. However, a more pluralistic view might suggest that audiences are intelligent and would not passively believe that imitating these representations is what they need in order to get the perfect lifestyle so aspirational adverts may not be as influential as they may seem.
The Media in modern society has established a widely accepted stereotype for males and masculinity. The dominant representation of males that is typically seen in advertising shows them as being; young, attractive and successful. In Paco Rabanne’s, 1 Million, the male protagonist possesses these dominant characteristics. The majority of the advert is filmed in black and white, which immediately connotes that he is classy and sophisticated. As Paco Rabanne is a well known designer, the advert has to match the same level of sophistication to meet the expectations of this brand. Within the first few seconds of the advert, the main stereotype is already shown, being the attractiveness of the protagonist, and this gives him an increased sense of masculinity as “one of the ways of determining whether a male character in an advertisement has the required authority [...] is through visual appearance” . There are many close up shots of his face to emphasise his good looks, as well as low key lighting to highlight his model-like bone structure. This makes him desirable, which is shown by the shot of the woman’s arms grabbing him. The woman’s face is deliberately hidden which creates an anonymous character. This suggests that any woman would want him. The ideology of the importance of wealth is evident throughout the advert. A lot of the advert is filmed in a casino, which signifies money, and a full bag of money is dropped on the floor, implying that money comes easily to the protagonist, showing that gender stereotypes do not only exist “in terms of physique, but also in the suggestion of his affluence and business success.” Therefore, this shows that institutions such as Paco Rabanne reinforce the stereotypical view that men have to conform to the set gender roles of a man.
The Marxist theory suggests that the dominant class groups in the hierarchy of society have power and influence over the subordinate groups. In aspirational adverts, the elite are “often focused upon, reinforcing their perceived importance” , which creates the ideology that they have idealistic lives that people would aspire to, hence reinforcing the Marxist idea of institutions representing the elite in leading roles, showing them as superior, which creates a social divide. In Dolce & Gabbana, The One, the main character has been placed in a dominant group of society. He owns an expensive car, and the long duration of the shot emphasises the value of it. Throughout the advert, he is being followed by paparazzi, implying his importance and that people would want to know about him. Also, he does not seem to take any notice of their cameras, which suggests that it is part of his everyday life. Through the mise-en-scene, the glamorous setting of a classy hotel reinforces his wealth and how it is only affordable to the higher socio-economic groups of A and B. All of the people in the advert are males, as this is the dominant gender in our patriarchal society, as “it is though patriarchy that power is attributed to males and withheld from females” . The sophisticated music of the advert also helps to create this hegemonic character. As the protagonist seems satisfied by his status, the advert helps to enforce the ideology that happiness comes from the success that he has gained. This could make audiences strive to become like this protagonist and influence them to fulfil their aspirations.
Over the years, males have become more androgynous, where they take on characteristics of the opposite gender roles and expectations. In many perfume adverts, the males take more care in their appearance, “passively inviting our gaze” . This is apparent in Jean Paul Gaultier’s Le Male, where all of the characters are men who are taking on feminine roles by showing a concern for their appearance “because they love being looked at and because so many men and women love to look at them” . The non-diegetic music that is used is sung by a woman, which adds femininity to the advert. The men in the advert are using the perfume in order to make themselves smell nice through the scent, which shows their metrosexual characteristics. The passing of the perfume to each other emphasises how men are becoming androgynous as it has become a part of their routine. At the end of the advert, all of the men are wearing suits, which represents them as being smart and presentable. Their pose invites the audience to look at them, which “contradicts the basic premise of traditional heterosexuality – that only women are looked at and only men do the looking” .
However, when this advert is compared to an older Jean Paul Gaultier perfume advert, Fleur Du Male, the historical advert shows that although androgyny did exist, it needed to be balanced with masculinity. Fleur Du Male consists of bright lighting as well as flowers which makes the advert more feminine. This feminine undertone of the advert is mirrored by the text; ‘freshness’, ‘poetry’ and ‘smile’ as they are feminine characteristics which would have been unexpected in an advert for males by an audience of that time. However, towards the end of the advert, a sense of masculinity is regained by the text, ‘in 100% masculine style’, to uphold the heightened status of masculinity in that patriarchal society as people at that time would have had “differing conceptions of what is most desirable as masculine (or feminine) traits” .
George Gerbner suggested that when audiences consume a media text, they are passively influenced by it and they may even be oblivious to the changes that it creates in them. The cultivation theory can be applied to aspirational adverts as they are viewed on a day to day basis and “many of these images are idealised, representing life more as it is imagined than as it actually exists” . Aspirational perfume adverts commonly use celebrities as actors, and this emphasises the idealistic lifestyle that the institutions want to create in the hope that audiences believe that their brand will mirror this lifestyle. The common iconographies of these perfume adverts consist of well dressed actors, all of the attention being with the protagonists and a black and white filming style. Because the protagonists are the main focus of the advert, the advert is not just about the product, but it is primarily about what consumers can gain from the product. In addition, the black and white filming and the well dressed actors give the advert class and elegance to make it more chic than what other adverts may convey. This suggests that “advertising operates predominantly by changing consumer tastes” because when audiences view characters pursuing their needs and wants, they aspire to be like the characters in the advert. The copycat theory is a way in which consumers impersonate the roles that they see and aspire to. Hypothetically, when idealistic lives are portrayed in aspirational adverts, society may change and “become accustomed to that cultures values, and beliefs in their advertising” , thus making them unaware that their lifestyles are being constructed in this way by media institutions.
Audience are easily influenced to aspire to the lifestyles they see in aspirational adverts. However, they can sometimes influence audiences negatively. This is seen through the censorship of many perfume adverts by Ofcom. It has become expected that perfume adverts have sexual content but “ads that are indecent, sexist, sexy [...] present a constant and ever growing problem” . The purpose of this sexual content should be to give audiences sexual gratifications. However, some adverts can be harmful to audiences as it is considered that there is over exposure to the amount of sexual images that we consume. This can be seen in Microsoft’s XP advert, where the actors are taking on sexual roles. Although the humour in the advert makes it light-hearted, it was still banned due to it being overly sexualised. Some of these images were almost pornographic as the institution decided to exceed the boundaries of acceptance to the mass audience. Although the Microsoft XP advert was banned, some sexualised adverts still lack censorship. Jean Paul Gaultier’s Le Male shows this through the recurring phallic symbol of the perfume bottle, and the sexualised way that the women are touching it. Also, there are a lot of close up shots of the body parts of the actors, fetishising them and objectifying them as they are no longer seen as people. This advert is sensationalising sex and raising political issues because the sensationalism of sex is a part of zeitgeist and moral panic in our society today.
Although it is widely believed that aspirational adverts influence audiences, a pluralistic view would oppose this idea. The Marxist theory implies that aspirational adverts “brainwashes its audience with base, deceptive promises and appeals, designed to promote materialism” , but this requires passive audiences. Pluralists would disagree that audiences are so passive that they would be affected by adverts without even realising, but believe that audiences are more intelligent than what producers may think. Audiences today are seen as being more active, therefore being aware of the mediation involved in adverts, and although pluralists “agree that many ads create wants without producing information, we do not agree that they change our tastes” . The repeated ideologies that perfume adverts present may not affect audiences to the point where it would influence their tastes and lifestyles.
It is clear that advertisers aim to influence consumers and their lifestyles, and I would agree that they are successful in doing so. They create such an idealistic lifestyle that audiences cannot help but aspire to become like the characters that are portrayed. Aspirational perfume adverts focus more on the benefits to consumers’ lives than their products, and “most economists and intellectuals have not liked advertisements that provide little information” . Rather than give the audience information on the perfume, these adverts influence the male audience’s behaviour as it shows them a way of life that they will strive to achieve. The institutions behind these adverts are aware that modelling the audience into their perfect consumer will allow them to appeal to a mass audience, so “the technological forces are then harnessed, or exploited, by economic forces, the companies in the business of making profits” . Although it is understandable that some people may think that audiences are intelligent enough to not be influenced, it is clear that aspirational adverts do have an effect on male consumer lifestyles.
Word Count – 1943
Bibliography
Works Cited
Books
Branston, G.,& Stafford, R. (1999). The media student's book (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp.379
Coad, D. (2008). The metrosexual: gender, sexuality, and sport. Albany: SUNY Press.
MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg (2000). Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer. Journal of Advertising Research, 40, pp 39-48
Jean J. Boddewyn. (1991) “Controlling Sex and Decency in Advertising around the World” M.E Sharpe, Inc.
Yong. Z and Betsy D. Gelb. (1996) “Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: The Influence of Products' Use Conditions” Autumn: M.E Sharpe, Inc. pp. 29-46
Magazines
Martin S-Rethel. (2003). An alternative model for analysing a particular moment of media production. Media Magazine
Lucy Scott-Galloway. ( 2008).The theory behind the practices of news production. Newham: Media Magazine. What is
News.
Articles
Phillip, N. (1975). The Economic Consequences of Advertising. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy. (1993) A Simple Theory of Advertising as a Good or Bad. London: Oxford University Press.
Internet
Contrast, w. o., relaxed, t., faggoty., Beckham, s. m., magazines, p. f., pathological, e. p., et al. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Meet the Metrosexual' Salon.com July 22 2002. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/metrosexual_beckham.html
Simpson, M. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Here come the mirror men' by Mark Simpson - first usage of the word 'metrosexual'. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/mirror_men.html
Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent â American Behavioral Scientist . (n.d.). American Behavioral Scientist . Retrieved January 30, 2011, from http://abs.sagepub.com/content/38/4/593.short
Moving Image Texts
Paco Rabanne, 1 Million
Dolce & Gabbana, The One
Jean Paul Gultier, Le Male
Jean Paul Gultier, Fleur Du Male
Works Consulted
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2352485
economics consequences of advertising - Phillip Nelson
http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Jpm4x1bNw7kC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=how+advertising+influences+male+tastes&ots=J4iQbn0CPo&sig=pKPrcxyVguWuSLsmMymylPK8aUw#v=onepage&q&f=false
How Adverting affects Self Image- By Vickie Rutledge Shields, Dawn Heinecken
http://www.jstor.org/pss/4189010
Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: the Influence of Products’ Use Conditions – Yong Zhang and betsy D. Gelb
http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=162717
Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer - Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg
http://abs.sagepub.com/content/38/4/593.short
Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent -Marsha L. Richins
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2118455
Simple theory of advertising as good or bad - Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy
http://www.englishandmedia.co.uk/mm/subscribers/downloads/archive_mm/_mmagpast/mm22_what_is_news.html
What is news - Lucy Scott
Coad, D. (2008). The metrosexual: gender, sexuality, and sport. Albany: SUNY Press
Gauntlett, D. (2008). Media, gender and identity: an introduction. (2. ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Knoop, B. v. (2006). Metrosexuality: development and validation of the metrosexual scale. Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit.
MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
How effective is aspirational advertising such as ‘Paco Rabanne: 1 Million’ and perfume advertising in general, in influencing male consumer lifestyles, and why is this the case?
The representations and ideologies of aspirational adverts allow consumers to identify with the characters, as well as aspiring to be more like them. The "extreme protagonists" show that advertising has "extraordinary powers" . This reinforces the idea that advertising is powerful and effective enough to construct aspirations as being more than they can be in reality. When audiences see aspirational adverts, they “associate it with a whole desirable style of life, and to feel that not owning the product would involve personal failure” . As Loren Colemen suggests in the copycat theory, that viewers model themselves on the representations that they see in the hope that they will gain the idealistic lifestyles that are created. Through recurring stereotypical representations of the young, white male, as well as hegemonic values, the institutions behind perfume adverts represent their perfect customer so they can shape the audience’s lifestyles parallel to the lifestyles of the protagonist. However, a more pluralistic view might suggest that audiences are intelligent and would not passively believe that imitating these representations is what they need in order to get the perfect lifestyle so aspirational adverts may not be as influential as they may seem.
The Media in modern society has established a widely accepted stereotype for males and masculinity. The dominant representation of males that is typically seen in advertising shows them as being; young, attractive and successful. In Paco Rabanne’s, 1 Million, the male protagonist possesses these dominant characteristics. The majority of the advert is filmed in black and white, which immediately connotes that he is classy and sophisticated. As Paco Rabanne is a well known designer, the advert has to match the same level of sophistication to meet the expectations of this brand. Within the first few seconds of the advert, the main stereotype is already shown, being the attractiveness of the protagonist, and this gives him an increased sense of masculinity as “one of the ways of determining whether a male character in an advertisement has the required authority [...] is through visual appearance” . There are many close up shots of his face to emphasise his good looks, as well as low key lighting to highlight his model-like bone structure. This makes him desirable, which is shown by the shot of the woman’s arms grabbing him. The woman’s face is deliberately hidden which creates an anonymous character. This suggests that any woman would want him. The ideology of the importance of wealth is evident throughout the advert. A lot of the advert is filmed in a casino, which signifies money, and a full bag of money is dropped on the floor, implying that money comes easily to the protagonist, showing that gender stereotypes do not only exist “in terms of physique, but also in the suggestion of his affluence and business success.” Therefore, this shows that institutions such as Paco Rabanne reinforce the stereotypical view that men have to conform to the set gender roles of a man.
The Marxist theory suggests that the dominant class groups in the hierarchy of society have power and influence over the subordinate groups. In aspirational adverts, the elite are “often focused upon, reinforcing their perceived importance” , which creates the ideology that they have idealistic lives that people would aspire to, hence reinforcing the Marxist idea of institutions representing the elite in leading roles, showing them as superior, which creates a social divide. In Dolce & Gabbana, The One, the main character has been placed in a dominant group of society. He owns an expensive car, and the long duration of the shot emphasises the value of it. Throughout the advert, he is being followed by paparazzi, implying his importance and that people would want to know about him. Also, he does not seem to take any notice of their cameras, which suggests that it is part of his everyday life. Through the mise-en-scene, the glamorous setting of a classy hotel reinforces his wealth and how it is only affordable to the higher socio-economic groups of A and B. All of the people in the advert are males, as this is the dominant gender in our patriarchal society, as “it is though patriarchy that power is attributed to males and withheld from females” . The sophisticated music of the advert also helps to create this hegemonic character. As the protagonist seems satisfied by his status, the advert helps to enforce the ideology that happiness comes from the success that he has gained. This could make audiences strive to become like this protagonist and influence them to fulfil their aspirations.
Over the years, males have become more androgynous, where they take on characteristics of the opposite gender roles and expectations. In many perfume adverts, the males take more care in their appearance, “passively inviting our gaze” . This is apparent in Jean Paul Gaultier’s Le Male, where all of the characters are men who are taking on feminine roles by showing a concern for their appearance “because they love being looked at and because so many men and women love to look at them” . The non-diegetic music that is used is sung by a woman, which adds femininity to the advert. The men in the advert are using the perfume in order to make themselves smell nice through the scent, which shows their metrosexual characteristics. The passing of the perfume to each other emphasises how men are becoming androgynous as it has become a part of their routine. At the end of the advert, all of the men are wearing suits, which represents them as being smart and presentable. Their pose invites the audience to look at them, which “contradicts the basic premise of traditional heterosexuality – that only women are looked at and only men do the looking” .
However, when this advert is compared to an older Jean Paul Gaultier perfume advert, Fleur Du Male, the historical advert shows that although androgyny did exist, it needed to be balanced with masculinity. Fleur Du Male consists of bright lighting as well as flowers which makes the advert more feminine. This feminine undertone of the advert is mirrored by the text; ‘freshness’, ‘poetry’ and ‘smile’ as they are feminine characteristics which would have been unexpected in an advert for males by an audience of that time. However, towards the end of the advert, a sense of masculinity is regained by the text, ‘in 100% masculine style’, to uphold the heightened status of masculinity in that patriarchal society as people at that time would have had “differing conceptions of what is most desirable as masculine (or feminine) traits” .
George Gerbner suggested that when audiences consume a media text, they are passively influenced by it and they may even be oblivious to the changes that it creates in them. The cultivation theory can be applied to aspirational adverts as they are viewed on a day to day basis and “many of these images are idealised, representing life more as it is imagined than as it actually exists” . Aspirational perfume adverts commonly use celebrities as actors, and this emphasises the idealistic lifestyle that the institutions want to create in the hope that audiences believe that their brand will mirror this lifestyle. The common iconographies of these perfume adverts consist of well dressed actors, all of the attention being with the protagonists and a black and white filming style. Because the protagonists are the main focus of the advert, the advert is not just about the product, but it is primarily about what consumers can gain from the product. In addition, the black and white filming and the well dressed actors give the advert class and elegance to make it more chic than what other adverts may convey. This suggests that “advertising operates predominantly by changing consumer tastes” because when audiences view characters pursuing their needs and wants, they aspire to be like the characters in the advert. The copycat theory is a way in which consumers impersonate the roles that they see and aspire to. Hypothetically, when idealistic lives are portrayed in aspirational adverts, society may change and “become accustomed to that cultures values, and beliefs in their advertising” , thus making them unaware that their lifestyles are being constructed in this way by media institutions.
Audience are easily influenced to aspire to the lifestyles they see in aspirational adverts. However, they can sometimes influence audiences negatively. This is seen through the censorship of many perfume adverts by Ofcom. It has become expected that perfume adverts have sexual content but “ads that are indecent, sexist, sexy [...] present a constant and ever growing problem” . The purpose of this sexual content should be to give audiences sexual gratifications. However, some adverts can be harmful to audiences as it is considered that there is over exposure to the amount of sexual images that we consume. This can be seen in Microsoft’s XP advert, where the actors are taking on sexual roles. Although the humour in the advert makes it light-hearted, it was still banned due to it being overly sexualised. Some of these images were almost pornographic as the institution decided to exceed the boundaries of acceptance to the mass audience. Although the Microsoft XP advert was banned, some sexualised adverts still lack censorship. Jean Paul Gaultier’s Le Male shows this through the recurring phallic symbol of the perfume bottle, and the sexualised way that the women are touching it. Also, there are a lot of close up shots of the body parts of the actors, fetishising them and objectifying them as they are no longer seen as people. This advert is sensationalising sex and raising political issues because the sensationalism of sex is a part of zeitgeist and moral panic in our society today.
Although it is widely believed that aspirational adverts influence audiences, a pluralistic view would oppose this idea. The Marxist theory implies that aspirational adverts “brainwashes its audience with base, deceptive promises and appeals, designed to promote materialism” , but this requires passive audiences. Pluralists would disagree that audiences are so passive that they would be affected by adverts without even realising, but believe that audiences are more intelligent than what producers may think. Audiences today are seen as being more active, therefore being aware of the mediation involved in adverts, and although pluralists “agree that many ads create wants without producing information, we do not agree that they change our tastes” . The repeated ideologies that perfume adverts present may not affect audiences to the point where it would influence their tastes and lifestyles.
It is clear that advertisers aim to influence consumers and their lifestyles, and I would agree that they are successful in doing so. They create such an idealistic lifestyle that audiences cannot help but aspire to become like the characters that are portrayed. Aspirational perfume adverts focus more on the benefits to consumers’ lives than their products, and “most economists and intellectuals have not liked advertisements that provide little information” . Rather than give the audience information on the perfume, these adverts influence the male audience’s behaviour as it shows them a way of life that they will strive to achieve. The institutions behind these adverts are aware that modelling the audience into their perfect consumer will allow them to appeal to a mass audience, so “the technological forces are then harnessed, or exploited, by economic forces, the companies in the business of making profits” . Although it is understandable that some people may think that audiences are intelligent enough to not be influenced, it is clear that aspirational adverts do have an effect on male consumer lifestyles.
Word Count – 1943
Bibliography
Works Cited
Books
Branston, G.,& Stafford, R. (1999). The media student's book (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp.379
Coad, D. (2008). The metrosexual: gender, sexuality, and sport. Albany: SUNY Press.
MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg (2000). Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer. Journal of Advertising Research, 40, pp 39-48
Jean J. Boddewyn. (1991) “Controlling Sex and Decency in Advertising around the World” M.E Sharpe, Inc.
Yong. Z and Betsy D. Gelb. (1996) “Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: The Influence of Products' Use Conditions” Autumn: M.E Sharpe, Inc. pp. 29-46
Magazines
Martin S-Rethel. (2003). An alternative model for analysing a particular moment of media production. Media Magazine
Lucy Scott-Galloway. ( 2008).The theory behind the practices of news production. Newham: Media Magazine. What is
News.
Articles
Phillip, N. (1975). The Economic Consequences of Advertising. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy. (1993) A Simple Theory of Advertising as a Good or Bad. London: Oxford University Press.
Internet
Contrast, w. o., relaxed, t., faggoty., Beckham, s. m., magazines, p. f., pathological, e. p., et al. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Meet the Metrosexual' Salon.com July 22 2002. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/metrosexual_beckham.html
Simpson, M. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Here come the mirror men' by Mark Simpson - first usage of the word 'metrosexual'. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/mirror_men.html
Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent â American Behavioral Scientist . (n.d.). American Behavioral Scientist . Retrieved January 30, 2011, from http://abs.sagepub.com/content/38/4/593.short
Moving Image Texts
Paco Rabanne, 1 Million
Dolce & Gabbana, The One
Jean Paul Gultier, Le Male
Jean Paul Gultier, Fleur Du Male
Works Consulted
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2352485
economics consequences of advertising - Phillip Nelson
http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Jpm4x1bNw7kC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=how+advertising+influences+male+tastes&ots=J4iQbn0CPo&sig=pKPrcxyVguWuSLsmMymylPK8aUw#v=onepage&q&f=false
How Adverting affects Self Image- By Vickie Rutledge Shields, Dawn Heinecken
http://www.jstor.org/pss/4189010
Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: the Influence of Products’ Use Conditions – Yong Zhang and betsy D. Gelb
http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=162717
Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer - Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg
http://abs.sagepub.com/content/38/4/593.short
Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent -Marsha L. Richins
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2118455
Simple theory of advertising as good or bad - Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy
http://www.englishandmedia.co.uk/mm/subscribers/downloads/archive_mm/_mmagpast/mm22_what_is_news.html
What is news - Lucy Scott
Coad, D. (2008). The metrosexual: gender, sexuality, and sport. Albany: SUNY Press
Gauntlett, D. (2008). Media, gender and identity: an introduction. (2. ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Knoop, B. v. (2006). Metrosexuality: development and validation of the metrosexual scale. Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit.
MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
Test screening feedback
After looking at the feedback...
WWW:
- The idea for the montage, using lots of different people wearing different Rayban sunglasses
- Followed the conventions of a sunglass advert, by showing a variety of sunglasses
- Good angle of the shot
EBI:
- The shots need to be taken in different settings
- Poor lighting.. the sunlight should be facing the camera not the person
Grades averaged -
Media language : C/D
Conventions : C /D
Creativity : C /D
Attention to detail : D
Technical proficiency : C/D
WWW:
- The idea for the montage, using lots of different people wearing different Rayban sunglasses
- Followed the conventions of a sunglass advert, by showing a variety of sunglasses
- Good angle of the shot
EBI:
- The shots need to be taken in different settings
- Poor lighting.. the sunlight should be facing the camera not the person
Grades averaged -
Media language : C/D
Conventions : C /D
Creativity : C /D
Attention to detail : D
Technical proficiency : C/D
Thursday, February 17, 2011
self asessment
Attainment: c/B
Effort: 2
Indigative: C/B
I have put these grades as i feel that i have a basic undertanding of a2 meida studes, and i feel that as i currently have an a i can atleast minimum get a b, for my media grade
Targets:
- do more exam style questions
- d=complete hw ontime
- plan ahead of time, e.g coursework ideas/case study ideas
Effort: 2
Indigative: C/B
I have put these grades as i feel that i have a basic undertanding of a2 meida studes, and i feel that as i currently have an a i can atleast minimum get a b, for my media grade
Targets:
- do more exam style questions
- d=complete hw ontime
- plan ahead of time, e.g coursework ideas/case study ideas
Monday, January 31, 2011
Plan
1. Start story board
2. Find actors
3. Decide time to film
4. Make filming plan – hopefully feb half term
5. Start editing by march
2. Find actors
3. Decide time to film
4. Make filming plan – hopefully feb half term
5. Start editing by march
Practical Production, Ideas..
2 adverts
- one perfume
- one sunglasses
3 prints each
texts, looked at..
Paco Rabanne – 1 Million
Emporio Armani – Diamond for men
Dolce and Gabanna, The One
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CU3VSuAhuqo
Rayban – commercial
- one perfume
- one sunglasses
3 prints each
texts, looked at..
Paco Rabanne – 1 Million
Emporio Armani – Diamond for men
Dolce and Gabanna, The One
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CU3VSuAhuqo
Rayban – commercial
Sunday, January 30, 2011
“Advertising operates predominantly by changing consumer tastes”[1]
How effective is aspirational advertising such as ‘Paco Rabanne: 1 Million’ and perfume advertising in general, in influencing male consumer lifestyles, and why is this the case?
The representations and ideologies of aspirational adverts allow consumers to identify with the characters, as well as aspiring to be more like them. The "extreme protagonists"[2] show that advertising has "extraordinary powers"[3]. This reinforces the idea that advertising is powerful and effective enough to construct lifestyles as being more than they can be in reality. When audiences see aspirational adverts, they “associate it with a whole desirable style of life, and to feel that not owning the product would involve personal failure”[4]. As the copycat theory suggests, viewers model themselves on the representations that they see in the hope that they will gain the idealistic lifestyles that are created. Through recurring stereotypical representations of the young, white male, as well as hegemonic values, the institutions behind perfume adverts represent their perfect customer so they can shape the audiences lifestyles parallel to the lifestyles of the protagonist. However, a pluralistic view would suggest that audiences are intelligent and would not passively believe that imitating these representations is what they need in order to get the perfect lifestyle so aspirational adverts may not be as influential as they may seem.
Media in modern society has established a widely accepted stereotype for males and masculinity. The dominant representation of males that is most often seen in advertising shows them as being; young, attractive and successful. In Paco Rabanne’s, 1 Million, the male protagonist possesses these dominant characteristics. The majority of the advert is filmed in black and white, which immediately connotes that he is classy and sophisticated. As Paco Rabanne is a well known designer, the advert has to match the same level of sophistication to meet the expectations of this brand. Within the first few seconds of the advert, the main stereotype is already shown, being the attractiveness of the protagonist, and this gives him an increased sense of masculinity as “one of the ways of determining whether a male character in an advertisement has the required authority [...] is through visual appearance”[5]. There are many close up shots of his face to emphasise his good looks, as well as low key lighting to highlight his model-like bone structure. This makes him desirable, which is shown by the shot of the woman’s arms grabbing him. The woman’s face is deliberately hidden which creates an anonymous character. This suggests that any woman would want him. The ideology of the importance of wealth is evident throughout the advert. A lot of the advert is filmed in a casino, which signifies money, and a full bag of money is dropped on the floor, implying that money comes easily to the protagonist, showing that gender stereotypes do not only exist “in terms of physique, but also in the suggestion of his affluence and business success.”[6] Therefore, this shows that institutions such as Paco Rabanne reinforce the stereotypical view that men have to conform to the set gender roles of a man.
The Marxist theory suggests that the dominant class groups in the hierarchy of society have power and influence over the subordinate groups. In aspirational adverts, the elite are “often focused upon, reinforcing their perceived importance”[7], which creates the ideology that they have idealistic lives that people would aspire to, hence reinforcing the Marxist idea of institutions representing the elite in leading roles, showing them as superior, which creates a social divide. In Dolce & Gabbana, The One, the main character has been placed in a dominant group of society. He owns an expensive car, and the long duration of the shot emphasises the value of it. Throughout the advert, he is being followed by paparazzi, implying his importance and that people would want to know about him. Also, he does not seem to take any notice of their cameras, which suggests that it is part of his everyday life. Through the mise-en-scene, the glamorous setting of a classy hotel reinforces his wealth and how it is only affordable to the higher socio-economic groups of A and B. All of the people in the advert are males, as this is the dominant gender in our patriarchal society, as “it is though patriarchy that power is attributed to males and withheld from females”[8]. The sophisticated music of the advert also helps to create this hegemonic character. As the protagonist seems satisfied by his status, the advert helps to enforce the ideology that happiness comes from the success that he has gained. This could make audiences strive to become like this protagonist and influence them to fulfil their aspirations.
Over the years, males have become more androgynous, where they take on characteristics of the opposite gender roles and expectations. In many perfume adverts, the males take more care in their appearance, “passively inviting our gaze”[9]. This is apparent in Jean Paul Gaultier’s Le Male, where all of the characters are men who are taking on feminine roles by showing a concern for their appearance “because they love being looked at and because so many men and women love to look at them”[10]. The non-diegetic music that is used is sung by a woman, which adds femininity to the advert. The men in the advert are using the perfume in order to make themselves smell nice through the scent, which shows their metrosexual characteristics. The passing of the perfume to each other emphasises how men are becoming androgynous as it has become a part of their routine. At the end of the advert, all of the men are wearing suits, which represents them as being smart and presentable. Their pose invites the audience to look at them, which “contradicts the basic premise of traditional heterosexuality – that only women are looked at and only men do the looking”[11].
However, when this advert is compared to an older Jean Paul Gaultier perfume advert, Fleur Du Male, the historical advert shows that although androgyny did exist, it needed to be balanced with masculinity. Fleur Du Male consists of bright lighting as well as flowers which makes the advert more feminine. This feminine undertone of the advert is mirrored by the text; ‘freshness’, ‘poetry’ and ‘smile’ as they are feminine characteristics which would have been unexpected in an advert for males by an audience of that time. However, towards the end of the advert, a sense of masculinity is regained by the text, ‘in 100% masculine style’, to uphold the heightened status of masculinity in that patriarchal society as people at that time would have had “differing conceptions of what is most desirable as masculine (or feminine) traits”[12].
It is believed that when audiences consume a media text, they are passively influenced by it and they may even be oblivious to the changes that it creates in them. The cultivation theory can be applied to aspirational adverts as they are viewed on a day to day basis and “many of these images are idealised, representing life more as it is imagined than as it actually exists”[13]. Aspirational perfume adverts commonly use celebrities as actors, and this emphasises the idealistic lifestyle that the institutions want to create in the hope that audiences believe that their brand will mirror this lifestyle. The common iconographies of these perfume adverts consist of well dressed actors, all of the attention being with the protagonists and a black and white filming style. Because the protagonists are the main focus of the advert, the advert is not just about the product, but it is primarily about what consumers can gain from the product. In addition, the black and white filming and the well dressed actors give the advert class and elegance to make it more chic than what other adverts may convey. This suggests that “advertising operates predominantly by changing consumer tastes”[14] because when audiences view characters pursuing their needs and wants, they aspire to be like the characters in the advert. The copycat theory is a way in which consumers impersonate the roles that they see and aspire to. Hypothetically, when idealistic lives are portrayed in aspirational adverts, society may change and “become accustomed to that cultures values, and beliefs in their advertising”[15], thus making them unaware that their lifestyles are being constructed in this way by media institutions.
Aspirational adverts aim to make audiences aspire to get the lifestyles that are represented in their adverts by influencing them. However, they can sometimes influence audiences negatively. This is seen through the censorship of many perfume adverts by Ofcom. It has become expected that perfume adverts have sexual content but “ads that are indecent, sexist, sexy [...] present a constant and even growing problem”[16]. The purpose of this sexual content should be to give audiences sexual gratifications. However, some adverts can be harmful to audiences as it is considered that there is over exposure to the amount of sexual images that we consume. Some of these images are almost pornographic as institutions decide to exceed the boundaries of acceptance to the mass audience. These adverts are sensationalising sex, raising political issues because the sensationalism of sex is a moral panic in our society today.
Although it is widely believed that aspirational adverts influence audiences, a pluralistic view would oppose this idea. The Marxist theory implies that aspirational adverts “brainwashes its audience with base, deceptive promises and appeals, designed to promote materialism”[17], but this requires passive audiences. Pluralists would disagree that audiences are so passive that they would be affected by adverts without even realising, but believe that audiences are more intelligent than what producers may think. Audiences are seen as being more active, therefore being aware of the mediation involved in adverts, and although pluralists “agree that many ads create wants without producing information, we do not agree that they change our tastes”[18]. The repeated ideologies that perfume adverts present may not affect audiences to the point where it would influence their tastes and lifestyles.
It is clear that advertisers aim to influence consumers and their lifestyles, and I would agree that they are successful in doing so. They create such an idealistic lifestyle that audiences cannot help but aspire to become like the characters that are portrayed. Aspirational perfume adverts focus more on the benefits to consumers’ lives than their products, and “most economists and intellectuals have not liked advertisements that provide little information”[19]. Rather than give the audience information on the perfume, these adverts influence the male audience’s behaviour as it shows them a way of life that they will strive to achieve. The institutions behind these adverts are aware that modelling the audience into their perfect consumer will allow them to appeal to a mass audience, so “the technological forces are then harnessed, or exploited, by economic forces, the companies in the business of making profits”[20]. Although it is understandable that some people may think that audiences are intelligent enough to not be influenced, it is clear that aspirational adverts do have an effect on male consumer lifestyles.
Word Count – 2186
Bibliography
Works Cited
Books
Branston, G.,& Stafford, R. (1999). The media student's book (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp.379
Coad, D. (2008). The metrosexual: gender, sexuality, and sport. Albany: SUNY Press.
MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
Magazines
Martin S-Rethel. (2003). An alternative model for analysing a particular moment of media production. Media Magazine
Lucy Scott-Galloway. ( 2008).The theory behind the practices of news production. Newham: Media Magazine. What is News.
Internet
Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg (2000). Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer. Journal of Advertising Research, 40, pp 39-48
Branston, G.,& Stafford, R. (1999). The media student's book (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.pp.377
Contrast, w. o., relaxed, t., faggoty., Beckham, s. m., magazines, p. f., pathological, e. p., et al. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Meet the Metrosexual' Salon.com July 22 2002. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/metrosexual_beckham.html
Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy. (1993) A Simple Theory of Advertising as a Good or Bad. London: Oxford University Press.
Jean J. Boddewyn. (1991) “Controlling Sex and Decency in Advertising around the World” M.E Sharpe, Inc.
Phillip, N. (1975). The Economic Consequences of Advertising. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Simpson, M. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Here come the mirror men' by Mark Simpson - first usage of the word 'metrosexual'. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/mirror_men.html
Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent â American Behavioral Scientist . (n.d.). American Behavioral Scientist . Retrieved January 30, 2011, from http://abs.sagepub.com/content/38/4/593.short
Yong. Z and Betsy D. Gelb. (1996) “Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: The Influence of Products' Use Conditions” Autumn: M.E Sharpe, Inc. pp. 29-46
Moving Image Texts
Jean Paul Gultier, Fleur Du Male
Works Consulted
Paco Rabanne, 1 Million
Dolce & Gabbana, The One
Jean Paul Gultier, Le Male
Jean Paul Gultier, Fleur Du Male
[1] Phillip, N. (1975). The Economic Consequences of Advertising. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
[2] Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg (2000). Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer. Journal of Advertising Research, 40, pp 39-48
[3] Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg (2000). Repetitive Advertising and the Consumer. Journal of Advertising Research, 40, pp 39-48
[4] Branston, G.,& Stafford, R. (1999). The media student's book (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp.379
[5] MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
[6] MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
[7] Martin S-Rethel. (2003). An alternative model for analysing a particular moment of media production. Media Magazine
[8] Coad, D. (2008). The metrosexual: gender, sexuality, and sport. Albany: SUNY Press.
[9] Coad, D. (2008). The metrosexual: gender, sexuality, and sport. Albany: SUNY Press.
[10] Contrast, w. o., relaxed, t., faggoty., Beckham, s. m., magazines, p. f., pathological, e. p., et al. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Meet the Metrosexual' Salon.com July 22 2002. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/metrosexual_beckham.html
[11] Simpson, M. (n.d.). Marksimpson.com 'Here come the mirror men' by Mark Simpson - first usage of the word 'metrosexual'. Mark Simpson. Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://www.marksimpson.com/pages/journalism/mirror_men.html
[12] MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men maleness and masculinity in the media. London: Arnold.
[13] Social Comparison, Advertising, and Consumer Discontent â American Behavioral Scientist . (n.d.). American Behavioral Scientist . Retrieved January 30, 2011, from http://abs.sagepub.com/content/38/4/593.short
[14] Phillip, N. (1975). The Economic Consequences of Advertising. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
[15] Yong. Z and Betsy D. Gelb. (1996) “Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: The Influence of Products' Use Conditions” Autumn: M.E Sharpe, Inc. pp. 29-46
[16] Jean J. Boddewyn. (1991) “Controlling Sex and Decency in Advertising around the World” M.E Sharpe, Inc.
[17] Branston, G.,& Stafford, R. (1999). The media student's book (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.pp.377
[18] Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy. (1993) A Simple Theory of Advertising as a Good or Bad. London: Oxford University Press.
[19] Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy. (1993) A Simple Theory of Advertising as a Good or Bad. London: Oxford University Press.
[20] Lucy Scott-Galloway. ( 2008).The theory behind the practices of news production. Newham: Media Magazine. What is News.
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